Before You Start
Most of us, me included, are born blind into the teaching profession, and like a litter of mice pass through our careers working hard to make a real difference, yet having very little knowledge of what has come and gone before our time. By their very nature, schools and school districts recall very little of their organizational history. Lacking that perspective, we also lack an understanding of the context of our own times. Without context it is very difficult to comprehend the full meaning of what we do, and we chase each trend or innovation as if it is brand new. Sometimes we stand on the shoulders of giants in education. Sometimes we stand on the shoulders of dolts. We do not always know the difference.
I count myself among those who completed the required courses of History of Education and Philosophy of Education but remember very little of them. We were focused on more urgent concerns. Will I learn to create engaging lessons? Will I be able to manage a class well and motivate children? Even
as we struggle up the learning curve, we are quickly submerged in the urgent demands of the school culture. What time remains for reflection?
This timeline is intended to address the need to understand how our time in teaching fits both into the history of our profession and the events of our national history. There are parallels as you will see. There are competing ideologies more than a century old, which are still not resolved. It cannot possibly include all issues and events. In that sense the timeline will always be incomplete, subjective, and a work in progress, though it is the result of countless hours of reading and lived experience. It is intended to generate lively discussion, and debate over different interpretations of shared events. We need to use our history purposefully to make grounded decisions going forward.
Andrew Hatt, House Principal Mahopac High School 1993-2014
Our history matters.
Timeline
1840s
Lancastrian system featured a careful breakdown of study into standard units of work. It utilized more advanced student “monitors” as peer teachers as a more efficient method to deliver a basic education to large numbers of poor children.
1840s
Within Protestant dominated common schools, anti-Catholic feelings were rampant. Curriculum openly made references to “deceitful Catholics,” Catholic church corruption, vile popery, and descriptions of the Pope as the devil or anti-Christ. The development of Catholic schools began as a result of this discrimination.
1840 - 1860
American cities grew at a faster rate than at any other time in American history. Birth of organized municipal services like fire, police, and schools. Immigration fueled this growth.
1840s
1840s
Widespread use of popular textbooks, e.g., McGuffey Reader.
1852
Uncle Tom’s Cabin published by Harriet Beecher Stowe.
1850
Compromise of 1850 delays Civil War for a decade.
1850
The first clipper ship, Stag Hound, is launched.
1850s
1856
Chicago Superintendent William H. Wells divided all students into grades with a distinct course of study for each.
1857
The Supreme Court issues the Dred Scott decision, asserting that Black people cannot be U.S. citizens.
1859
First successful oil well in the U.S. is drilled in Pennsylvania.
1857
The National Education Association (NEA) is formed. Issues include teacher salaries, child labor, education of freed slaves, and Native American education.
1861-1865
American Civil War results in 600,000 dead from a U.S. population of under 32 million.
1863
Emancipation Proclamation frees slaves in rebel states.
1860s
1869
Completion of the Transcontinental Railroad.
1865
The 13th Amendment is passed, abolishing slavery.
1872
Yellowstone is established as the first National Park.
1860-1900
The population of the U.S. doubled in these four decades, largely due to immigration.
1870
The 15th Amendment is passed, giving Black men the right to vote.
1870s
1876
Alexander Graham Bell makes the first successful phone call.
1870s-1960s
After Reconstruction, Jim Crow laws were passed mainly in southern states, designed to enforce the separation of races in marriage, education, and transportation.
1880s
In urban school systems city ward politics heavily influenced superintendents’ and school boards’ decisions, including hiring teachers and principals. This continued well into the twentieth century.
1882
Humanist ideology prevalent:
• Develop the intellect
• Train students to control natural impulses
• Content valued over process
• The role of school was to transmit cultural heritage to the next generation
• Students were passive learners
1882
Chinese Exclusion Act by Congress put a 10-year moratorium on importing Chinese labor. Repealed in 1943.
1880s
1890
Curriculum status quo was the doctrine of “mental discipline.” Christian Wolf, 1740: The mind was equated to a muscle. By teaching classics, Greek, Latin, and Math, one exercised and strengthened faculties of the mind, such as memory, reasoning, will, and imagination. This was known as the “transfer of training” concept.
1890s
Child Developmentalist ideology:
• Use science to study
the child
• Drudgery and
repression are
unnecessary and
thwart a child’s
natural tendencies
1892
Charles Eliot chaired NEA’s Committee of Ten:
• Task: To match diverse college entrance requirements to the high school curriculum.
• Issue: What to teach in high school?
1890s
Growing turmoil and alarm in U.S. over what America was becoming. Protestant establishment challenged by growing numbers of Catholics. Tremendous social transformation due to railroads, journalism, and immigration. Influenced education toward mentality of social control.
1890s
7% of high school ages students are attending school.
1870s-1950s
After Reconstruction in 1870s, roughly four thousand blacks were lynched in the U.S., mainly in the South.
1890s
1890s
Two main opposing ideological groups emerged:
• Humanists, led by William T. Harris
• Child Developmentalists, led by G. Stanley Hall
1896-1904
John Dewey’s experimental laboratory school at University of Chicago. Extolled close home and school ties. Emphasized active hands-on learning in a child-centered curriculum. Featured collaborative learning and interdisciplinary approaches.
1896
Plessy vs. Ferguson upheld segregation under “separate but equal.”
1900
The Galveston, TX hurricane leaves 6,000-8,000 dead.
1900
U.S. population is 76 million.
1900s
11% of high school age youth were attending school. Ninety-seven per cent of those drop out before graduation.
1903
The Wright brothers make their first flight at Kitty Hawk, N.C.
1901
President McKinley is shot.
1900s
1909
Charles Ayres wrote Laggards in our Schools:
• Assailed inefficiency in his study of urban school systems.
• Found that one-sixth of students in the U.S. were repeating a grade.
• Developed the famous Index of Inefficiency for 58 urban school systems.
1905
Douglas Commission Report in Massachusetts.
Advocated curriculum tied to “callings of life.” Beginnings of vocational education.
1906
An earthquake destroys much of San Francisco.
1910s
Rise of Social Efficiency movement in education reflecting goals of Progressive Era. Utilized Taylor’s scientific management and testing in attempt to match students to suitable vocational roles in social order rather than liberal arts learning. Led to tracking and vocational education.
1910s
Development of psychological theory to replace faculty psychology. Psychology begins to have an increasing influence on education. Bell curves, testing, are new tools to select and sort.
1912
Willard Wirtz, Supt. of Gary, Indiana invented the “platoon” system for more efficient building use. Students rotated in groups or “platoons” to specialized departmentalized teachers, instead of remaining with one teacher.
1911
Fredrick Winslow Taylor wrote Principles of Scientific Management. Introduced task analysis.
1914
The Panama Canal opens under U.S. control
1910s
1910s
Davids Snedden, Commissioner of Education in Massachusetts, advocate of social efficiency movement promoted paths of curriculum ie. academic, vocational, and general with goals within each path.
1918
John F. Bobbitt wrote The Curriculum. Was the first definitive book on the subject, advocating a series of experiences leading to curricular objectives. Sought to eliminate waste in curriculum and educate individuals for roles in social order.
Factory model — students as raw material. Advocated scientific measurement and management.
1910s
Superintendents and progressive administrators had largely won the fight over ward bosses control of school boards and hiring.
1918
Clarence Kingsley issues Cardinal Principles Report citing seven aims for curriculum to prepare students for role in democratic society. They were health, basic literacy, worthy home citizenship, vocational preparation, civic education, use of leisure, and good character. It was a landmark document for the Progressive Era.
1918
U.S. Army gave mass I.Q. testing to determine suitability for tasks.
1917
U.S. enters WW I.
1918
Flu pandemic kills 500K Americans, 30 million worldwide.
1906-1922
Novels such as Babbit by Sinclair Lewis and The Jungle by Upton Sinclair exposed dissatisfaction with American business and industry.
1920
The 19th Amendment established women’s right to vote. Last state legislature to ratify was Mississippi in 1984.
1920s
1920
33% of H.S. aged youth attending school.
1920
Prohibition laws ban the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol.
1925
Tennessee bans teaching evolution in public schools.
1926
George Counts of Columbia Univ. wrote The Senior High School Curriculum. Criticized social efficiency thinking that preserved status quo and sent low income tracked students to vocational and did not promote an equitable society.
1920s
Vocational education has become a logical and practical outgrowth of the social efficiency movement and one of the most important educational reforms of the twentieth century.
1920s
Idea of I.Q. testing as an educational tool becomes widespread in the U.S. Tests were used as a means to sort students. Beginning of mental measurement and tracking movements.
1929
Black Thursday October 24, 1929. Beginning of the Great Depression.
1933
New Deal legislation is passed.
1930s
Hard life during depression dampens romantic ideology of child developmentalists. They lose influence. Social efficiency movement also loses momentum amidst growing social inequality and high unemployment.
1930s
“Social reconstructionists” movement gaining momentum led by George S. Counts and Harold O. Rugg. They believed curriculum was a tool to attack social injustice and evils of capitalism. They criticized American Schools for preserving status quo instead of helping to create a better social order.
1930s
Russian Revolution and social change was admired by many American intellectuals. Some saw Depression as a sign of failed capitalism.
1930s
1930s
Harold O. Rugg. Prof. at Teachers College, Columbia introduced 14 volume social studies text Man and His Changing Society published 1929–39. Based issues such as immigrants, stereotypes, changing role of women. The themes were researched by social scientists. Text was great success for social reconstructionists.
1938
Federal Fair Labor Act sets minimum wage at 25 cents per hour.
1942
Ralph Tyler published Eight Year Study saying that college entrance requirements propped up traditional academic subjects and impeded curricular reform.
1940s
With advent of WWII, patriotism, not social criticism came into vogue. Spells decline of social reconstructionism.
1944
The National Education Association (NEA) Report The History that Should Not Happen. Tried to scare people with nightmare of federal control. Said that academics only serve needs of few. Students need more vocational prep.
1941-1945
Large decline in school enrollment during war years due to:
• declining birth rate
during depression
• early enlistment in
military
• good jobs in
defense industry
1940
Youth Commission Report.
Themes were preparing youth for workforce, greater government investment in education, recognition of social and economic inequities, community involvement in schools
1944
The G.I. Bill offered primarily white veterans a federal subsidy to continue school or training.
1940-1960
Nearly 4 million blacks migrate from South (1940–1960) Mostly to cities. During 50s & 60s black population of major cities doubles.
1941-1945
U.S. engaged in WW II
1940s
1941-1945
During the war, emphasis teaching practical subjects to help war effort i.e. with astronomy, focus on navigation.
1945
Harvard faculty Redbook Report. Countered social efficiency advocates. Curriculum should be half vocational and half academics. Re-emergence of Humanist ideals.
1948
President Truman ended segregation in armed forces and banned discrimination in federal employment.
1954
The U.S. Supreme Court declares that racially segregated schools are unconstitutional in Brown vs. Board of Education.
1950
Rise of Life Adjustment Education.
Believed in preparation for all areas of living ie. Home living, vocational living, leisure, health.
1950s
Many cities adopting Life Adjustment student centered curriculum which sought to address youth’s needs in areas of personal finance, home economics, health, and academic support.
1950-1953
Korean War
1953-1954
Senator Joe McCarthy leads national effort to identify and root out Communism.
1950s
1950s
Reformers in 1950's were often viewed with suspicion and linked to Communist threat. Led to investigations, loyalty oaths and firing of educators."
1957
New massive influx of federal money into schools to counter Soviet threat. Trust and power shifted to central control of curriculum i.e. scientists, university academicians. Hard sciences, math in high gear. Humanist position dominant again.
1955
Virgina Governor Thomas Stanley heads campaign of “Massive Resistance” in response to 1954 Brown vs. Board. The “Stanley Plan” closed public schools and provided tuition for white students to attend private segregated schools.
1959
Wisconsin passed first law to allow collective bargaining for public employees. Many states followed and union membership increased across U.S.
1950s
Contradiction between American ideals of freedom and justice becoming more apparent. Eisenhower sends National Guard to safeguard entry of 9 black students to Little Rock High School.
1957
October 5, 1957
Russian satellite Sputnik launched.
1964
Congress passes Civil Rights Act
1960s
States, Federal Government and courts increasingly require costly mandates i.e. affirmative action, bi-lingual education and later Special Education. Schools increasingly lose power to manage their own affairs.
1960s
Cultural deprivation research now being done regarding urban poor. Different theories and approaches in the resulting Compensatory Education showed that schools did not know how to educate poor students and make up for deficits in home life.
1960s
Emergence of youth counter culture which rejected middle class values. Student protests over draft and Vietnam War were not understood or approved by general public.
1960s
1964-1975
U.S. at war in Vietnam
1960s
Court ordered de-segregation contributed to white flight from major cities.
1960s
TV coverage of sit-ins, boycotts and freedom riders is changing how nation is seeing civil rights.
1960s
Illegal drugs began to be seen and used by youth in parts of the country.
1970s
As parents become more educated and as youth see example of counter culture, the authority of administrators and teachers is challenged.
1973
Roe v. Wade legalizes abortion.
1970
1975
Congress passes PL 94-142 which required handicapped children to receive a free and appropriate education.
1975
Three fourths of teachers are union members.
1979
President Carter establishes U.S. Department of Education. First appointed secretary is a Federal judge.
1979
Female full-time salaried workers earned 62% of what their male counterparts earned according to Bureau of Labor Statistics.
1980
Desegregation of schools reaches height and is linked to higher achievement. Promoted under Carter, eroded by Reagan. In 1980, 37% of black students attending white schools.
1980
Both secondary schools and colleges have become dependent on federal funds and are now more subject to regulation.
1980
High school graduation rate is 75%.
45%percent enter college.
1980s
AIDS epidemic begins. It will kill millions worldwide.
1980s
Merit pay is promoted, but fails under heavy opposition. Movement begins to evaluate teachers through test scores, lengthen pre-teacher training, and create alternate pathways for career changers to obtain teaching credentials.
1983
Networks have transitioned to a modern Internet.
1984
Commissioner of Ed. Terence Bell produces federal document A Nation at Risk which criticized mediocrity in American schools and set the table for the school accountability movement.
1980s
1980s
In response to A Nation at Risk, 30 states instituted testing programs. Some began requiring teachers to take preservice exams.
1986
Space Shuttle Challenger explodes. Sets back Space Program.
1989
The Berlin Wall is demolished signaling an end to the Cold War.
1989
Wendy Kopp founds Teach for America responding to need for experienced, qualified, teachers in high need schools.
1994
President Clinton launches Goals 2000 which requires states to develop higher curriculum standards and tests in order to receive Title I money. Congress withdrew financial support.
1980s-2020s
From 1980's to 2020's the federal government stopped encouraging schools to integrate, even though racial and socio-economic integration was strongly linked to higher student achievement.
1990
Iraq invaded Kuwait leading to 1991 Gulf War.
1990s
1990s
Schools are investing significantly in computer technology, giving teachers and administrators a wider range of resources and tools.
1995
168 people killed in Oklahoma City bombing.
1997
President Clinton bars federal funding for human clone research.
1999
On April 20, 1999 two high school seniors entered their school and killed 13 people in Columbine, CO.
1999
In response to Columbine and copycat shootings, schools across the country began to increase security with measures such as required I.D.'s, cameras, and police presence.
2001
President George W. Bush promotes No Child Left Behind testing. Failing schools lose Title I funding. Teaching to the test led to widespread abuses, but served to highlight the achievement gap between race, class, and disability, and produced data to show it.
2001
On Sept. 11, 2001 al-Qaeda carried out airline hijackings and attacks on the World Trade Center in NYC and The Pentagon.
2001
In October 2001 the U.S. invaded Afghanistan to address issues of Taliban giving safe haven to al-Qaeda, where they could plan future attacks on the U.S.
2003
In 2003–2011 the U.S. led coalition forces invaded and occupied Iraq to locate alleged weapons of mass destruction and destroy Saddam Hussein’s purported links to terrorist groups.
2003
Kati Haycock introduced to U.S. Congress, 'value added measurement' that the individual teacher was the most important ingredient.
2000s
2000s
Increasingly frequent mass shootings at schools, theater, and other public venues spark a fierce national debate over American gun culture and gun laws.
2005
Results of value added performance pay show rampant abuse and ineffective outcomes.
2008
The growing popularity of cell phones are becoming an additional challenge to classroom teachers.
2008
In deep recession, school districts and municipalities cut budgets, laying off thousands of teachers and other employees. New initiatives are on hold.
2008
U.S. Department of Education study 2001-2008 shows 54% of teachers leave profession after 5 years.
2008
First Black U.S. President elected: Barack Obama.
2008
U.S plunges into the deepest economic downturn since the Great Depression.
2013
Wall Street Journal poll shows 40% of Americans believe 4-year college is worth the cost.
2010
School libraries are adjusting to transition from print to digital materials.
2010
President Obama introduces Race to the Top which tied federal funds to state level reforms. Teacher evaluations, pay, and tenure were to be linked to student achievement.
2010
Failure of merit-based improvement programs lead to popularity of lesson design systems such as Madeline Hunter or Charlotte Danielson.
2012
A gunman kills 26 including 20 children at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, CT.
2010
Affordable Care Act 'Obamacare' signed into law.
2013
Black Lives Matter emerges as a political movement protesting racial inequality in criminal justice system.
2012
President Obama makes statement in support of gay marriage + Supreme Court legalizes in 2015.
2010s
2017
Widespread online response to sexual abuse of women results in growing 'Me Too' movement.
2015
"Culture wars" topics such as gun control, immigration, abortion, and issues related to LGBTQIA+ increasingly are polarizing liberal and conservative voters.
2019
Longest federal gov’t shutdown in U.S. history lasts 35 days.
2023
Wall Street Journal poll shows 44% of Americans believe 4-year college is worth the cost.
2023
A record 4,240 book titles were banned in U.S. schools, according to American Library Association (ALA). This was a 65% increase over 2022. 45% of those books related to race or LGBTQ issues.
2022
Conservative parents and politicians agitate to de-emphasize teaching black history, coining the term “critical race theory.”
2024
Average 4-year college graduation rate is 65% leaving remaining 36% dropouts without degrees and many deeply in debt.
2022
Supreme Court overturns Roe v. Wade.
2024
According to Rand Corp survey, 42% of American adults personally know at least one person who died of a drug overdose.
2020
According to Bureau of Labor Statistics, female full-time salaried workers earned 82% of what their male counterparts earned.
2020
A pandemic of Covid 19 sweeps across the U.S. killing over 1.1 million people.
2020s
2025
In the New England States the number of Catholic elementary and middle schools has declined by 24% in the past decade.
"The owl of Minerva begins its flight only with the falling of the dusk."
Hegel. The Philosophy of Right. 1820.
References:
Dewey, John. Experience and Education. 1938. Collier Books.
Goldstein, Diana. The Teacher Wars: A History of America's Most Embattled
Profession. 2014. Doubleday.
Kliebard, Herbert M. The Struggle for the American Curriculum:1893-1958.
1986. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Ravitch, Diane. The Troubled Crusade: American Education 1945-1980. 1983.
Harper Collins.
Tyack, David B. The One Best System. 1974. Harvard University Press.
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